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Interestingly, the authors interpret their results in the context of the Bradford Hill criteria for inferring causality (which consider the strength, consistency, specificity, temporality, biological gradient, plausibility, coherence, experiment, and analogy of an association)

When did it happen, and does that matter with regard to outcomes? The study is published online in the journal Substance Use and Misuse

[5] We note that aspects not harmonized by the Directive may be regulated autonomously by the Member States

Symptoms depend on the dose and individual sensitivity

Methods Utilizing genetic instruments for tobacco and alcohol consumption, associated methylation quantitative trait locus (mQTL), and summary-level GWAS data for ECG indices, we assessed heritability and genetic causal associations using linkage disequilibrium score regression and Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis